Stakeholder engagement and ESG (Special Edition Researchposting 115)

Stakeholder engagement: 18x (new) research on stakeholder engagement, human capital, employee activists, employee ESG surveys, ESG wage gap, CEO pay gap, customer alpha, CEO limits and more research which is important for my shareholder engagement activities (see e.g. my earlier blog posts Engagement test, Impact Investing mit Voting und Engagement? and Wrong ESG bonus math?).

Stakeholder engagement overview

Stakeholder engagement studies: Exploring the antecedents and consequences of firm-stakeholder engagement process: A systematic review of literature by Avinash Pratap Singh and Zillur Rahman as of Oct. 31st, 2022 (#16): “… we pursued the vast body of literature on firm-stakeholder engagement and comprehensively examined over 170 research articles to accumulate precursors and outcomes of SE processes. … We used thematic analysis to provide evidence of the growing interest of academics and managers in firm-stakeholder engagement. The findings of this study suggest that shared benefits with a long-term perspective are valuable to both corporation and its stakeholders”.

Stakeholder engagement options: Stakeholder Engagement by Brett H. McDonnell as of Oct. 31st, 2022 (#88): “We have seen that the present reality of stakeholder engagement is fairly extensive, and sensible as far as it goes. As one would expect, employees are the most engaged group, followed by customers, and then by nonprofits, suppliers, and government regulators. The most used forms of engagement include meetings and surveys. Employee resource groups are near-universally used. Partnerships, social media, and councils are used less frequently, but still somewhat regularly. … And yet, the current reality falls well short of the future possibilities of stakeholder engagement. Current engagement mostly involves companies listening to what stakeholders have to say. It does not empower stakeholders to be more actively involved in corporate decision making” (p. 53/54). My comment: Very helpful paper for practitioners including reference to the AccountAbility Stakeholder Engagement Standard

Advert for German investors: “Sponsor” my research by investing in and/or recommending my article 9 mutual fund. I focus on social SDGs and midcaps and use separate E, S and G best-in-universe minimum ratings. The fund typically scores very well in sustainability rankings, e.g. this free new tool, and the performance is relatively good: FutureVest Equity Sustainable Development Goals R – DE000A2P37T6 – A2P37T

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ESG confusion and more (Researchposting 114)

ESG confusion: 19x new research on energy, mining, home offices, UN PRI, D&O, ESG ratings, greenwashing, shareholder and bondholder engagements, CEO pay, asset allocation, trading fee, private equity, cryptos

Political (social and ecological) research

Energy tax chaos: Carbon conundrum – How to Save Climate Change Policy from Government Failure by Philip Booth and Carlo Stagnaro from the Institute of Economic Affairs as of Jan. 19^th, 2023 (#5): “In principle, environmental taxes and subsidies should reflect externalities. However, in practice, policy is chaotic with tax treatment reflecting the nature of the fuel, who consumes the fuel and for what purpose the fuel is used. … On average, oil products are taxed at €405 per tonne of oil equivalent in the UK and €334 in the EU27, as compared with €135 and €101 for natural gas and €112 and €84 for coal. This is despite the fact that coal, not oil, poses the largest environmental challenges as far as climate change is concerned. … Subsidies were higher for solar photovoltaics (€1,468 per tonne of oil equivalent in the UK and €2,019 in the EU27), followed by wind power (€961 and €743, respectively). Hydro power and bio-energies received, on average, much lower subsidies. … Subsidies to fossil fuels were generally intended to support consumption rather than production. On average, oil, natural gas and coal received €130, €61 and €86 per tonne of oil equivalent in subsidies in the UK and €320, €47 and €27 respectively in the EU27. … The net effect of taxes and subsidies leads to substantially greater net taxes on oil than on natural gas while coal is taxed the least. The level of net taxes on energy sources does not, in any way, relate to the externalities from the energy source” (Viii-X)

Social mining: Mining for Peace by Roland Hodler, Paul Schaudt, and Alberto Vesperoni as of Jan. 25^th, 2023 (#9):“The energy transition increases the demand for minerals from ethnically diverse, conflict-prone developing countries. We study whether and where mining is possible in such countries without raising the risk of civil conflict. … A crucial insight is that new mining projects do not necessarily translate into more conflict but may pacify the country under the right conditions and the right policies“ (abstract). My comment: Ca. 1% of my investable ESG universe consists of mining stocks

Good home offices: Time Savings When Working from Home by Cevat Giray Aksoy, Jose Maria Barrero, Nicholas Bloom, Steven J. Davis, Mathias Dolls, and Pablo Zarate as of Jan. 17^th, 2023 (#53): “We quantify the commute time savings associated with work from home, drawing on data for 27 countries. The average daily time savings when working from home is 72 minutes in our sample. … Workers allocate 40 percent of their time savings to their jobs and about 11 percent to caregiving activities. People living with children allocate more of their time savings to caregiving“ (abstract).

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Bank climate risks and more (Researchblog 113)

Bank climate risks: >20x new research on CO2 bio-capture, ESG ratings, inflation, greenwashing, diversity, gender pay gap, shareholder engagement, investment consultants, ML and hybrid robo-advisors

Social and ecological research

CO2 bio-capture: Scalable, Economical, and Stable Sequestration of Agricultural Fixed Carbon by Eli Yablonovitch and Harry Deckman as of Dec. 28^th, 2022 (#129): “We describe a scalable, economical solution to the Carbon Dioxide problem. CO2 is captured from the atmosphere by cellulosic plants, and the harvested vegetation is then salted and buried in an engineered dry biolandfill. Plant biomass can be preserved for hundreds to thousands of years by burial in a dry environment … Current agriculture costs, and biolandfill costs indicate US$60/tonne of sequestered CO2 which corresponds to ~US$0.60 per gallon of gasoline. The technology is scalable owing to the large area of land available for cellulosic crops, without disturbing food production. If scaled to the level of a major crop, existing CO2 can be extracted from the atmosphere, and simultaneously sequester a significant fraction of world CO2 emissions” (abstract).

Regulated innovation: The effects of environmental innovations on labor productivity: How does it pay to be green by Hannu Piekkola and Jaana Rahko as of Jan. 10^th, 2023 (#6): “This paper adds to the literature by examining environmental innovations as part of overall firm innovation activity among Finnish manufacturing and energy sector firms … Our empirical analysis shows that regulation-driven environmental innovations enhance productivity … Introducing new environmental regulations increases environmental innovativeness, which in turn leads to improved firm performance that can apparently compensate for all of the costs of regulation. Nordic firms may have benefited from a first-mover advantage by becoming green in many industries … Many companies set targets for themselves that are even stricter than what the regulations require because they want to set a model for other companies and stakeholders” (p. 21/22).

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Greenhushing and more (Researchposting 112)

Greenhushing: 15x new research on air quality, ESG audits, emerging markets, methane, private equity, impact tools, engagement, algos, large caps, robo advisors and other fintechs

Social and ecological research

Deadly air: Air quality and suicide by Claudia Persico and Dave E. Marcotte as of Jan. 17^th, 2023 (#144): “We conduct the first-ever large-scale study of the relationship between air pollution and suicide using detailed cause of death data from all death certificates in the U.S. between 2003 and 2010. … we find that a 1 g/m3 increase in daily PM2.5 is associated with a 0.49% increase in daily suicides and 0.171 more suicide-related hospitalizations (a 50% increase)” (abstract).

ESG data audits: ESG Assurance in the United States by Brandon Gipper, Samantha Ross, and Shawn X. Shi as of Nov. 21^st, 2022 (#307): “We examine the landscape and evolution of ESG assurance in the U.S. from 2010-2020, as well as the determinants of ESG assurance. … We document a remarkable increase in not only the number of firms issuing ESG reports and obtaining assurance but also the number of metrics disclosed and assured within reports. We further document considerable heterogeneity in which metrics receive assurance, differential assurance patterns between non-financial assurors and traditional auditors, and evolving assurance practices. … peer effects and especially ESG reporting frameworks are major determinants of ESG assurance. … the vast majority of ESG assurance is limited and/or process assurance …” (p. 34/35).

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SDG und Trendfolge: Relativ gut in 2022

SDG und Trendfolge: Während ESG ETF-Portfolios nicht so gut abschnitten, waren SDG und Trendfolgeportfolios relativ gut. Hier sind die Renditen meiner 2 traditionellen und 15 nachhaltigen Modellportfolios und meines Fonds:

Traditionelle most-passive ETF-Portfolios

Das nicht-nachhaltige regelbasierte Weltmarkt ETF-Portfolio hat in 2022 -15% verloren. Das ist schlechter als aktive Mischfonds, die etwa -12% verloren haben. 2021 war der Vorsprung mit +18% für das Weltmarkt ETF-Portfolio gegenüber +10% für Mischfonds jedoch erheblich. Das ebenfalls nicht-nachhaltige Alternatives ETF-Portfolio hat mit -12% (+36% in 2021) wie traditionelle Aktienindizes abgeschnitten (-13% für einen globalen Aktienindex-ETF).

ESG und SDG ETF-Portfolios: SDG und Trendfolge gut

Das relativ breit gestreute ESG ETF-Portfolio schnitt 2022 mit -15% wie das traditionelle Weltmarktportfolio und damit ebenfalls etwas schlechter als traditionelle aktive Mischfonds (-12%) ab. In 2021 war es mit +12% aber besser als solche Mischfonds (+10%).

Das ESG ETF-Portfolio ex Bonds hat 2022 -18% verloren. Traditionelle Aktien-ETFs lagen mit -13% erheblich besser (2021: +21% und +25%). Traditionelle aktive Aktienfondsmanager waren mit -15% ebenfalls besser (2021 +23%). Das ESG ETF-Portfolio ex Bonds Income rentierte mit -17% (2021: +23%) erheblich schlechter als aktive traditionelle Dividendenfonds mit -11% (+26%). Dagegen hat sich das ESG ETF-Portfolio ex Bonds Trend mit -8% (2021: 16%) wiederum viel besser als aktive Mischfonds mit -12% gehalten (+10% in 2021).

Das ESG ETF-Portfolio Bonds (EUR) hat 2022 mit -13% etwas schlechter abgeschnitten als traditionelle Anleihe-ETFs (-10%), nachdem die Performance in 2021 mit -3% vergleichbar war.

Das aus thematischen Aktien-ETFs bestehende SDG ETF-Portfolio hat 2022 mit -16% (2021: +12%) schlechter als traditionelle Aktienindizes (-13%) rentiert. Das SDG ETF-Trendfolgeportfolio hat mit -9% (2021: +8%) dagegen viel besser performt als aktive Mischfonds (-12%).

Direkte pure ESG und SDG Aktienportfolios: SDG und Trendfolge gut

In 2022 hat das aus 30 Aktien bestehende Global Equities ESG Portfolio mit -13% (2021: +20%) so abgeschnitten wie traditionelle Aktien-ETFs (-13%) und erheblich besser als das viel stärker diversifizierte ESG ETF-Portfolio ex Bonds (-18%). Gegenüber aktiv gemanagten traditionellen Aktienfonds (-15% nach +23% im Vorjahr) ist die Rendite in 2022 ebenfalls etwas besser. Das aus nur aus 5 Titeln bestehende Global Equities ESG Portfolio S hat mit -15% in 2022 etwas schlechter abgeschnitten. Aber mit den +32% aus 2021 liegt es weiter hervorragend im Performancevergleich.

Das Infrastructure ESG Portfolio hat -10% verloren (2021: +6%) und liegt damit weiter stark hinter traditionellen Infrastrukturportfolios (-5% für aktive Fonds und -2% für ETFs) zurück. Das liegt vor allem daran, dass im ESG-Portfolio Infrastruktur für und Energieerzeugung mit fossilen Energieträgern ausgeschlossen sind.

Der Real Estate ESG Portfolio hat 2022 -26% (+23% in 2021) verloren. Das ist schlechter als traditionelle passive Immobilienaktienportfolios (-23%) und erheblich schlechter als traditionelle aktive Immobilienaktienfonds (-17%).

Das Deutsche Aktien ESG Portfolio hat 2022 -23% (+21% in 2021) verloren. Das ist vergleichbar mit traditionellen passiven Benchmarks (-22%) aber erheblich schlechter als aktive Deutschlandfonds (-17%). Zusammen mit dem Vorjahr liegt mein nachhaltiges Portfolio im Renditevergleich aber auf einem ähnlichen Niveau.

Das auf soziale Midcaps fokussierte Global Equities ESG SDG hat -9% erzielt (+22% in 2021), also erheblich besser als andere globale Aktienportfolios (-15%). Das Global Equities ESG SDG Trend Portfolio konnte mit -10% (+14,5% in 2021) besser abschneiden als traditionelle Mischfonds (-12%), nachdem es auch im Vorjahr schon vorne lag. Das Global Equities ESG SDG Social Portfolio wurde erst am 21. Januar gestartet und wird deshalb in diesem Vergleich noch nicht berücksichtigt. Die ersten Monate sind insgesamt ähnlich wie beim Global Equities ESG SDG Portfolio gelaufen .

Mein FutureVest Equity Sustainable Development Goals R Fonds, der am 16. August 2021 gestartet ist, hat in 2022 -9% verloren und liegt damit ebenfalls im Wettbewerbsvergleich gut, vor allem im Vergleich zu aktiv gemanagten Aktienfonds (-15%). Das gilt auch für die Volatilität von 14% und den maximalen zwischenzeitlichen Verlust von 14% (vgl. auch Mein Artikel 9 Fonds: Noch nachhaltigere Regeln – Responsible Investment Research Blog (prof-soehnholz.com)).

Fazit: SDG, Trendfolge und mein Fonds besonders gut

Vereinfacht zusammengefasst haben 2022 meine nachhaltigen ETF-Portfolios schlechter rentiert als nicht-nachhaltige Benchmarks. Die beiden nachhaltigen ETF Trendfolgeportfolios haben dagegen erheblich besser als traditionelle Mischfonds abgeschnitten.

Meine konzentrierten direkten Aktienportfolios (vgl. 30 stocks, if responsible, are all I need – Responsible Investment Research Blog (prof-soehnholz.com) haben überwiegend besser als vergleichbare nachhaltige ETF-Portfolios rentiert (zu den überarbeiteten Regeln für 2023 vergleiche Artikel 9 ETF-Portfolios bzw. PAB ETF-Portfolios sind attraktiv – Responsible Investment Research Blog (prof-soehnholz.com)). Meine direkten nachhaltigen Portfolios haben zwar schlechter als traditionelle ETF-Portfolios performt, aber oft vergleichbar mit aktiv gemanagten traditionellen Fonds. Im Einzelnen rentierten meine sehr fokussierten (Deutsche Aktien, Infrastruktur, Immobilien) Aktienportfolios 2022 relativ schlecht. Relativ gut bis sehr gut waren dagegen meine Trendfolge und die direkten SDG Aktienportfolios sowie mein FutureVest Fonds.

Anmerkungen:

Die Performancedetails siehe www.soehnholzesg.com und zu allen Regeln und Portfolios siehe Das Soehnholz ESG und SDG Portfoliobuch. Benchmarkdaten: Eigene Berechnungen auf Basis von www.morningstar.de

Female ESG power and more (Researchposting 111)

Female ESG power: >10x new research on human rights ratings, child care, female ESG power, climate defaults, brown offloads, green consumers, green benchmarks, transition risks, ESG shocks, leasing, UN PRI, timberland and hedge funds by Gaizka Ormazabal, Frauke Peter, Joshua Rauh, Thierry Roncalli et al.

Social research: Female ESG power

Human rights ratings? ESG Ratings and Human Rights Due Diligence – How can ESG ratings be used to assess the human rights due diligence practices of companies? by Emil Sirén Gualinga as of Jan.4^th, 2023 (#45): “… the paper examined the relationship between ESG ratings and Corporate Human Rights Benchmark (CHRB) scores. The findings indicate that in general, ESG scores are not a good proxy for assessing companies’ human rights due diligence processes and practices. Moreover, whereas the relationship between ESG ratings and CHRB scores are inconsistent, a low score on Refinitiv and ISS may indicate that a company lacks adequate human rights due diligence processes. Conversely, a high score on Refinitiv or ISS is not necessarily an indicator of strong human rights due diligence processes. Lastly, the paper also acknowledges that the CHRB itself has limitations, as it does not preclude companies with a track record of being involved in human rights abuses from achieving high scores” (p. 15).

Social application-help: Early Child Care and Labor Supply of Lower-SES Mothers: A Randomized Controlled Trial by Henning Hermes, Marina Krauß, Philipp Lergetporer, Frauke Peter, Simon Wiederhold as of Jan.3^rd, 2023 (#16): “We present experimental evidence that enabling access to universal early child care for families with lower socioeconomic status (SES) increases maternal labor supply. Our intervention provides families with customized help for child care applications … The treatment increases lower-SES mothers’ full-time employment rates by 9 percentage points (+160%), household income by 10%, and mothers’ earnings by 22%. … Overall, the treatment substantially improves intra-household gender equality in terms of child care duties and earnings“ (abstract).

Female ESG power: The Eco Gender Gap in Boardrooms by Po-Hsuan Hsu, Kai Li, and Yihui Pan as of Jan. 3^rd, 2023 (#151): “Using novel firm- and facility-level measures of corporate environmental performance over the period 2002–2021, we establish a robust and positive association between board gender diversity and corporate environmental performance. This relation appears to be causal … We find that female directors bring more expertise on sustainability in boardrooms than male directors. Female directors are more likely to sit on sustainability-related committees and key monitoring committees than male directors. Boards with more female directors are more likely to link top executives’ compensation to corporate ESG performance” (p. 34). My comment: Similar results see 140227 ESG_Paper_V3 1 (naaim.org)

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Positive immigration and more little known research (Researchposting 110)

Positive immigration: >20x new research on climate conflicts, inequality, immigration, gas price break, carbon pricing, solar sharing, cool cities, brown banks, greenwashing, biodiversity, analysts and consultants, voting and engagement and private equity by Christina Bannier, Lucian Bebchuk, Alexander Wagner et al.

Social research: Positive immigration and more

Climate conflicts: Climate Shocks and Domestic Conflicts in Africa by Yoro Diallo and René Tapsoba as of December 29^th, 2022 (#8): “We build on a broad panel of 51 Africa countries over the 1990-2018 period. We unveil key results with far-reaching policy implications. First, we find suggestive evidence that climate shocks, as captured through weather shocks, increase the likelihood of domestic conflicts, by as high as up to 38 percent. Second, the effect holds only for intercommunal conflicts, not for government-involved conflicts. Third, the effect is magnified in countries with more unequal income distribution and a stronger share of young male demographics, while higher quality social protection and access to basic health care services, stronger tax revenue mobilization, scaled up public investment in the agricultural sector, and stepped-up anti-desertification efforts appear as relevant resilience factors to this vicious climate-conflicts nexus” (p. 26).

Wealth inequality: Who Gets the Flow? Financial Globalisation and Wealth Inequality by Simone Arrigoni as of December 13^th, 2022 (#14): “The main result points towards a significant positive link between the increase in financial globalisation (proxied with the IFI) and changes in the top 1% (the rich) and 10% (upper middle-class) wealth shares and a significant negative link with changes in the wealth share of the bottom 50% of the distribution (working class). … I find that the main driving components of this result appear to be portfolio equities and financial derivatives. … I find that the increase in inequality following the acceleration in financial globalisation is driven by the flow. The wealthy get richer due to an expansion of their portfolios rather than just a market value gain on their existing stock of wealth. … the main finding is strengthened in the event of a systemic banking crisis“ (p. 25/26).

Gender inequality gaps: Tackling Gender Inequality: Definitions, Trends, and Policy Designs by Baoping Shang as of Dec. 21^st, 2022 (#27): “… gender inequality needs to be distinguished from gender gaps. … addressing gender inequality benefits everyone, not just women. … as gender inequality becomes more subtle and implicit, targeted gender policies will likely need to play an increasing role … The paper concludes by discussing gaps in the literature and policy challenges going forward” (abstract).

Advert for German investors: “Sponsor” my research by recommending my article 9 fund. The minimum investment is approx. EUR 50 and return and risks are relatively good: FutureVest Equity Sustainable Development Goals R – DE000A2P37T6 – A2P37T: I focus on social SDGs and midcaps and use best-in-universe as well as separate E, S and G minimum ratings. The fund typically scores very well in sustainability rankings, see this new tool for example.

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Artikel 9 Fonds: Sind 50% Turnover ok?

Artikel 9 Fonds mit klaren Nachhaltigkeitsregeln

Für meinen Artikel 9 Fonds FutureVest Equity Sustainable Development Goals R versuche ich, nur die verantwortungsvollsten 30 Aktien zu nutzen (vgl. 30 stocks, if responsible, are all I need – Responsible Investment Research Blog (prof-soehnholz.com).

„Verantwortungsvoll“ definiere ich dabei auf Basis eines transparenten Konzepts (vgl. 220901_Nachhaltigkeitsinvestmentpolitik_der_Soehnholz_Asset_Management_GmbH-9d76c965ab447b9ff4e1f04e62dffaa12e12f064.pdf (futurevest.fund).

Die Regeln für meine Portfolios können einmal pro Jahr geändert werden. Dabei versuche ich, die Nachhaltigkeitskriterien immer strenger zu fassen. Das hat Anfang 2022 zu einem Austausch von 15 der 30 Aktien meines Fonds geführt (für 2022 vgl. Mein Artikel 9 Fonds: Noch nachhaltigere Regeln – Responsible Investment Research Blog (prof-soehnholz.com).

Für den Fonds ist das die diesjährige Selektionsstatistik: Von über dreissigtausend Aktien liegen für etwas mehr als die Hälfte aussagekräftige E, S und G Ratings vor. Etwa 2.300 erfüllen meine E, S und G Mindestanforderungen. Davon fallen weitere knapp 400 durch meine Rule-of-Law Länderausschlüsse heraus, ungefähr 1.100 entfallen durch Aktivitätsausschlüsse und 100 weitere durch angekündigte Übernahmen, andere Delisting-Gründe oder ineffiziente Zugangsmöglichkeiten. Damit bleiben nach Ausschluss der 25% Aktien mit den höchsten Kursverlusten ungefähr 500 für meine Portfolios zulässige Aktien übrig. Ungefähr 10% davon erfüllen zudem meine Anforderungen an Vereinbarkeit mit den Nachhaltigen Entwicklungszielen der Vereinten Nationen (UN SDG).

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Artikel 9 ETF-Portfolios bzw. PAB ETF-Portfolios sind attraktiv

Artikel 9 ETF-Portfolios: Mein erstes nachhaltiges ETF-Portfolio habe ich 2015 entwickelt und Anfang 2016 online gestellt. Meines Wissens war dieses ESG ETF-Portfolio damit das erste derartige öffentliche Portfolio weltweit. Das Ziel war und ist weiterhin, eine möglichst breite Asset-Allokation mit möglichst nachhaltigen ETFs umzusetzen (vgl. Das-Soehnholz-ESG-und-SDG-Portfoliobuch.pdf (soehnholzesg.com), S. 95ff). Das hat bisher nicht nur konzeptionell, sondern auch rendite- und risikomäßig gut funktioniert (vgl. www.soehnholzesg.com).

Meine erste nachhaltige ETF-Portfoliogeneration: Konzeptionelle Selektion

Zum Start gab es nur nachhaltige ETFs für hochkapitalisierte Aktien aus Industrieländern und für Unternehmensanleihen. Erst nach und nach konnten zusätzliche Marktsegmente mit verantwortungsvollen ETFs abgedeckt werden. Aktuell sind auch nachhaltige ETFs für Immobilien- und Infrastrukturaktien, niedrig kapitalisierte Unternehmen, Unternehmen aus Entwicklungsländern und, als mein Ersatz für Staatsanleihen, Anleihen multilateraler Entwicklungsbanken verfügbar.

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ESG bonus: Researchblogposting #109

ESG bonus: 15x new research on inequality, diversity, PRI, greenium, fintech, incompetences, engagement, 1/n and more by Peter Mülbert, David Walker, Malcom Baker, Lucian Bebchuk, Marie Dutordoir, Guofu Zhou, Dirk Zetzsche, David Larcker, Raina Gibson, Pedro Matos et al.

Environmental and social research

Climate action: Adaptation platforms – a way forward for adaptation governance in small cities? Lessons learned from two cities in Germany by Julia Teebken, Nicole Mitchell and Klaus Jacob as of Dec. 7^th, 2022 (#6): “… we introduce adaptation platforms as a novel, low-threshold approach to initiate climate adaptation governance in small cities. … In Boizenburg (Elbe) in Northern Germany, an adaptation platform (“Platz-B”) was set up in the municipal administration. In the local authority association of Liebenwerda, in Eastern Germany, the platform (“Lighthouse Louise”) was developed through an association, which is organized by civil society. We present the context conditions for establishing the platforms, their core principles, functions, and some of the adaptation projects which were initiated“ (abstract).

Inequality drivers: Hours Inequality by Daniele Checchi, Cecilia García-Peñalosa, and Lara Vivian as of Dec. 14^th, 2022 (#16): “… while the contribution of hours worked to earnings inequality is moderate in France and the US, it explains between 30 and 40 percent of earnings inequality in Germany and the UK. … it could be that individuals with higher wages now work more (supply-side) or that jobs that pay lower wages also provide fewer hours (demand-side) … the increase in female employment observed in all countries tending to increase inequality. … If reduced working hours are the result of individual choices, the increase in leisure may offset the loss in relative income and result in higher welfare. Alternatively, if low-pay workers are unable to work as much as they would like … then a deteriorated income position will be associated with under-employment and hence a loss in utility“ (p. 24).

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